how much coal did the titanic use each day

The massive iceberg that is responsible for the sinking of the infamous vessel on April 15, 1912, was estimated to weigh 75 million tons. How do you calculate working capital for a construction company? This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Above: A photograph of the Promenade (A) Deck of the Titanic. The Titanic also carried 40 tons of potatoes, 800 bundles of asparagus, 2500 pounds of green peas, and 10,000 pounds of beans and rice. When all the double-enders were fully fired up and operational, they could consume approximately 850 tons of coal per day, or on average 35 tons per hour, and the Titanic had a total bunker capacity of 6,611 tons. The year 1855 marks the high-water mark of the paddle-steamer era. I know of two who are taking a breather for personal reasons. It has been impossible, of course, in a magazine article, to do more than touch upon the vast changes, and their causes, which have had place in this great factor of human progress. Combined, they produced 46,000 horsepower, consuming 600 tons of coal a day. 10,000 the approximate number of light bulbs on the ship. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. It is not only the timid who would prefer her; it is but commonsense on the part of anyone to choose that which will give them the greatest chances of safety, and of arrival within certain definite limits of time. Limited Edition Titanic Coal Coin $39.99 Quickview Compare New coal case large $49.95 Quickview Compare Titanic Exhibition 13 x 16 Framed w/Coal/Silver Coin $109.95 Quickview Compare Photo Mint 12 x 20 Framed RMS Titanic Blue Print w/Coal $99.95 Quickview Compare 14 x 18 Framed RMS Titanic Etched Glass w/Coal and Bronze Medallion . When all the double-enders were fully fired up and operational, they could consume approximately 850 tons of coal per day, or on average 35 tons per hour, and the Titanic had a total bunker capacity of 6,611 tons. 721 Hummingbird Lane SE. air dose rate was 30 nGy h1 (where nGy is 109 Gy), they varied day by day, even time to time, sometimes showing more than two times larger . Transatlantic Liverpool to New York in Days, Hours, Minutes: The time has thus been shortened much more than half since 1840, and has been lessened forty per cent. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. Since ships operate on different steering systems, they may have been confused and made a wrong turn. The Titanic had twenty-four double-ended boilers and five single-ended boilers. When You Breathe In Your Diaphragm Does What. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. 1,050 tons the amount of coal used per day by the Cunard ships, which although faster were also smaller and much less fuel efficient. The fourth was said to be for ventilation and aesthetic purposes only. -Charles Lightoller, Titanic Second Officer. The Titanic had twenty-four double-ended boilers and five single-ended boilers. He shows that the surface friction constitutes almost the whole resistance at moderate speeds, and a very great percentage at all speeds; that the immersed midship section area which formerly weighed so much in the minds of naval architects was of much less importance than was supposed, and that ships must have a length corresponding in a degree to the length of wave produced by the speed at which they are to be driven. Perhaps it's as easy as a simple story problem. Neither of these was a new proposal; (Note 535-A) several patents had been taken out for the former at a very early date, both in America and in England; and in 1838 the Wilberforce, a boat running between London and Hull, was so fitted. The Titanic had just 20 lifeboats for 2,240 people. In 1911, the company manufactured the anchors and chain for the ocean liner RMS Titanic. She was 376 feet long, 45 feet 3 inches broad, and of about 5,500 tons displacement. You can try loading the page again, if the error persists try in a few minutes. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double-ended and five single-ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The Titanic used 14,000 gallons of drinking water every 24 hours. With the addition of this great number of steamers, change was not to be expected for some years; and it was not until 1879, when the Guion company put afloat the Arizona, that a beginning was made of the tremendous rivalry which has resulted in putting upon the seas, not only the wonderful ships which are now running upon the Atlantic, but in extending greatly the size and speed of those employed in other service. According to Titanic: The New Evidence the coal bunkers were three stories high and house 1.5 tons of coal. Like the anchors, the section of chains forged had to be proved and both Hingley and Lloyds Proving House workmen had the lengthy task of checking all the links and 1,200 feet of chain were forged for Titanic. Sister ship Olympic, comparable in size but with a lower gross register tons of 45,324, had a daily coal consumption of around 674 tons. If the coal being sold as "Titanic Coal" is indeed American coal, there can be only two explanations. Most modern cruise ships will have more than one anchor. By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. The Titanics total weight was 52,310 tons or 47,454.834 metric tons. Since the warning didnt have the prefix MSG (Masters Service Gram) requiring the Captain to acknowledge the receipt, the radio operator considered the warning non-urgent. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. When all the double-enders were fully fired up and operational, they could consume approximately 850 tons of coal per day, or on average 35 tons per hour, and the Titanic had a total bunker capacity of 6,611 tons. In 1912, the cost to build the Titanic was $7.5 million. In addition to the great ships mentioned, there have been placed upon the line from Bremen to New York, touching at Southampton, England, the eight new or lately built ships of the North German Lloyd, which form altogether the most compact and uniform fleet upon the Atlantic. The pressure carried was 60 pounds. The salaries of Coal Miners in the US range from $11,105 to $294,800 , with a median salary of $53,905 . 73 the number of Coal Trimmers (an estimated 20 survived). Their general arrangement was a most marked advance upon that of their predecessorsan excellent move was placing the saloon forward instead of in the stern, a change almost universally followed. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The RMS Titanic, a luxury steamship, sank in the early hours of April 15, 1912, off the coast of Newfoundland in the North Atlantic after sideswiping an iceberg during its maiden voyage. Had the Titanic been equipped with the propellers that are on modern cruise ships, the vessel would have probably tried to reverse. Aquitania was the third in Cunard Line's grand trio of express liners, preceded by RMS Mauretania and RMS . My inclination would be to figure on the lower consumption rate as the ship didn't have all that extra mass working against her. The Titanic had four smokestacks (or funnels), but only three actually carried smoke from the furnaces. Today, the MS Allure of the Seas is largest passenger vessel afloat, at 1,187 feet (362 metres) long. Though a few expeditions to find the wreck of the Titanicwere launched in the 60s and 70s, it wasnt until 1985 that a team led by surveyor Robert Ballard located the wreck. The first ships to reach the site were quickly exhausted of their supplies. The company has a long successful history in book publishing, product licensing, radio and popular TV shows. Robert L. Stevens, of Hoboken, built as early as 1832 " the now standard form of return tubular boilers for moderate pressures " (Professor R. H. Thurston). Professor Grant Bigg estimated it to be 100,000 years old, if not more. Fearing the cold water touching the hot boilers would cause an explosion, engineers instructed firemen to stay below decks and vent as much steam as possible. In the same year with the Britannic came out the City of Berlin, of the Inman line, for some years the largest steamer afloat (after the Great Eastern), being 520 feet in length by 44 feet beam, of 5,000 indicated power, and in every way a magnificent ship. 825. Who Can Benefit From Diaphragmatic Breathing? The Scotia had been built as a paddle steamer rather in deference to the prejudices of passengers than in conformity with the judgment of the company, which had put afloat iron screw ships for their Mediterranean trade as early as 1852 and 1853. Titanic's Fuel. 6,611 tons - the amount of coal stored in the ship's bunkers. Sister ship Olympic, comparable in size but with a lower gross register tons of 45,324, had a daily coal consumption of around 674 tons. In that year were built the Adriatic, by the Collins line, and the Persia, as a competitor (and the twenty-eighth ship of the . On an energy content basis, this amount was equal to about 10.5 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) and to about 10.8% of total U.S. energy consumption. Some of the foremost early English engineers favored cast-iron boilers (see evidence before parliamentary committee, 1817); and the boiler in general use in England up to 1850 was a great rectangular box, usually with three furnaces and flues, all the faces of which were planes. TITANIC VS NOAH'S ARK What an apples vs oranges comparison. 825 tons the amount of coal used per day. What does it mean when your ex tells you happy birthday? Retrieval ships reasoned that they had recovered wealthy passengers because their remains might be needed to settle affairs of their estate, and delivered many of them to an ad hoc morgue set up in a curling rink. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. These changes made the use of a cylindrical boiler necessary, as the form best able to withstand the increased pressure. 1955 the year in which Walter Lord (1917 2002) published A Night To Remember, his popular non-fiction account of the Titanic tragedy, released as a movie in 1958 and credited with regenerating public interest in the story, which had wained over the years. Most people don't know that the Titanic was actually on fire days before it sank. Diagram showing Decrease in Expenditure of Coal per indicated Horse-power per Hour based on good Average Practice. It had 10 decks, or floors. Carried 20 lifeboats and 3560 life jackets. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Each anchor is the stockless bower type weighing 30,000 pounds; each chain is 12 shots, or 1,080 feet long, including the outboard swivel shot. How much coal was on Titanic? Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. 1 How much did the anchor on the Titanic weigh? The Titanic burned about 600 tons of coal each day to keep it powered. How many times should a shock absorber bounce? The Titanic burned a total of. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. We make sure cruisers are fully prepared for their cruise vacation with tips on ships and ports. Inflation Youll Like: Massive Balloon Creations by Mike Verge, Trees are Migrating West, and Scientists Arent Exactly Sure Why, Rare Whale Birth Witnessed by California Coast Tourists, Lost for Decades, Wallet and Ring Returned to Original Owners. Date: 1983 Country: State: City: Provenance: Lot: 1245 - FOOTBALL CARD COLLECTION: NUMBER 1 [157319] Almost 300. The Titanic produced 100 tons of ash daily, which was dropped into the North Atlantic Ocean. Samuel Halpern has concluded that the bunker fire would not have weakened the watertight bulkhead sufficiently to cause it to collapse. Also, it has been suggested that the coal bunker fire actually helped Titanic to last longer during the sinking and prevented the ship from rolling over to starboard after the impact . Sister ship Olympic, comparable in size but with a lower gross register tons of 45,324, had a daily coal consumption of around 674 tons. If any of these measurements are out, it affects the vessel. It does not store any personal data. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. About 70-80,000 tons? That said, Southampton was the port she was intended to sail to and from. For $22.50 one can purchase a limited edition authentic coal hourglass with black sand, or a piece of coal in an acrylic case that comes with a certificate of authenticity for $25. When the RMS Titanicstruck an iceberg in the North Atlantic in 1912, it took just two and a half hours for the largest ocean vessel in the world to sink, taking the lives of nearly 1,500 people with it. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. The Titanic left Southampton with 5892 tons of welsh coal supplied by the Lewis Merthyr Consolidated Collieries supplemented by coal from other White Star Line ships laid up by the coal strike. The SS Californian radioed another ship in the area an hour before the Titanic hit the iceberg, indicating an ice field was ahead. Since then, a number of explorers have brought back items from the wreck, including pieces of coal from the engine room that now reside in the Ripley collection. RMS Aquitania was a British ocean liner of the Cunard Line in service from 1914 to 1950. However, the ships speed wasnt the only factor that led to its demise. How can we prevent community health problems? Worth Reading: Titanic vs. Modern Cruise Ship How Do They Compare? A team of 176 men kept the fires burning, and it is estimated that over 100 tons of ash were injected into the Atlantic each day the Titanic operated. This line may be looked upon as one of the most fortunate between England and America. This watertight bulkhead Titanic experiment is hands-down my favorite experiment. In a Boeing 777, a single engine produces 52,000 hp. There were three furnaces on each end of the double-ended boilers, and three furnaces on the single-ended. Titanic had a swimming pool on board filled with seawater! With a capacity of 5,350 tonnes of heavy fuel, her four cruising diesel engines together can burn approximately 12 tonnes of fuel per hour. . While survivors of the Titanicarrived in New York aboard the RMS Carpathiathree days after the tragedy, initial reports said that the Titanicwas being towed to shore at this time. A total of 176 firemen shoveled around the clock, shoveling enough coal to produce 100 tons of ash that would be jettisoned into the ocean. About 25% of the third-class passengers survived. RMS refers to Royal Mail Ship or Royal Mail Steamer. The supermodel, 33 - who was romantically linked to DiCaprio, 48, back in 2011 - tied the knot with her partner Karol . A large ship needs more time and slower speed to maneuver around an obstacle and avoid hitting it at full speed. Several things had combined in the latter part of this decade to bring about this advance. Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. Again, parents are a great resource for this. 69 feet the length of the room in which the reciprocating engines were located. Since the Titanic was a massive ship it would come to no surprise that the coal bunkers the areas designated to store the ship's coal would be just as enormous. If you prefer not to use PayPal, our mailing address is: EPautos. Here's the table I did ages ago utilising the lower accurate figures: Looks to me like the Big T had an adaquate reserve of coal. The funnels extended high above the deck, in order to ensure that passengers were not covered in the soot being ejected. Disgraced GOP congressman George Santos is accused of using his animal nonprofit to steal $3,000 raised for homeless disabled vet's cancer-stricken dog, which then died in agony The Bothnia and Scythia were also built in 1874, by the Cunard company, as representatives of the new type, but were much smaller than the preceding. Coal consumption per day: 825 tons. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". The replica anchor now sits in the town centre of Netherton. Since the start, it's been our aim to provide the latest cruise news covering all the major cruise lines. Since the RMS Titanic weighed 52,310 tons, it would have a mean draught of 34 7. It is needless to say that it is worth while on the part of any owner to offer special inducements in a traffic of such magnitude. The Titanic burned a total of 3,540 tons of coal, averaging 620 Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. Did anyone from the boiler room Survive the Titanic? Of moderate 895 tons per day. How much coal did the Titanic use? The. In 2021, about 546 million short tons (MMst) of coal were consumed in the United States. Sunny Boy Member Posts: 23592 What are the first colors given names in a language? Now that you've read these hilarious Valentine's Day jokes for kids, check out the funniest Valentine's Day cards we're buying this year. Due to its sheer size, it needed 6,000 tons of coal daily to keep the ship moving. During Tennant's absence, scenes in the Titanic's reception area were filmed at the Exchange in Swansea and the Coal Exchange in Cardiff Bay. In these matters it is dangerous to prophesy; it is safer to believe all things possible. David, Parks, Capt. While filming, an off-hand comment from the director Diarmuid Lawrence about the likeness between her and the actress who played her mother prompted Winslet to lose weight. Read on for the key facts about the ship, then explore the site further for more fascinating and moving aspects of her life and loss. The anchor is 11 feet, 4 inches long with arms that are 7 feet, 7 inches across. A: It depends on the accommodation: - Marie Depage paid $142.50 for her cabin E 61, low in the ship. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. 6,611 tons - the amount of coal stored in the ship's bunkers. How Much do Cruise Ship Anchors Weigh? How much coal did the Titanic carry on her maiden voyage? How much coal did the Titanic use each day? Each link weighs 110 pounds. When all the double-enders were fully fired up and operational, they could consume approximately 850 tonsof coal per day, or on average 35 tons per hour, and the Titanic had a total bunker capacity of 6,611 tons. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Titanic, standing outside Black Country Living Museum after it was first made. Above: Titanic leaving Southampton at the beginning of her maiden voyage, with passengers gathered on deck. I absolutely love cruising with my favorite ports of call being in the Caribbean. 22 April 1914 the date on which the Titanic Engineers Memorial was unveiled at Andrews Park in Southampton, England. The Titanics anchor was 16 US tons and many of the large modern large ships have anchors that weigh vastly more. firemen (an estimated 45 survived). 2,500 to 3,000 pounds If all the 32.5 Mt of imported coal had been the relatively cheap US stuff, going for around 90 a ton in 2011 market. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". In the parallel universe created in "Turn Left" (2008), the Adipose incident happened in America instead of the United Kingdom, as London was destroyed when the Titanic crashed into Buckingham Palace because of the absence of the Doctor ("Voyage of the Damned"). -Steven Biel, cultural historian, on the influence of A Night To Remember. In 1874 triple expansion engines had been designed for the Propontis by Mr. A. C. Kirk, of Napier & Sons, of Glasgow, which, on account of failure in the boilers which were used, did not give at first the results hoped for. How many people were on the Titanic when it sank? The logic is inescapable. How much does a sailing ship anchor weigh? Tennant filmed his scenes in the area on 16 and 17 July. His claim to the wreckage is based on a late-1960s ruling by a British court and the British Board of Trade that awarded him ownership of the Titanic. Under present circumstances a complete break-down of the machinery of these great ships is a disaster which may entail delay as the least of the difficulties. Titanic was equipped with three main enginestwo reciprocating four-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low-pressure Parsons turbineeach driving a propeller. Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. Of the. But how much did the Titanic weigh? The Titanic had twenty-four double-ended boilers and five single-ended boilers. How much coal does the Titanic hold? Smith for sailing the ship at 22 knots through an area they were told hours before was laden with icebergs. Aug 18, 2004. I'm not entirely convinced they were out to break the Olympic's crossing time. Read Also: How Much Does a Cruise Ship Weigh? driven by propellers or screws, also standing for Steamship), only becoming officially recognised as the RMS Titanic after first carrying the Royal Mail. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. Displacement and buoyancy are two of the most important factors when designing a ship. Fresh water for drinking? Titanic Engineering Crew 163 the number of Stokers i.e. 3 How much coal did the Titanic use a day? Titanic vs. Modern Cruise Ship How Do They Compare? Required fields are marked *. How much horsepower does a 777 have? This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. 3 the number of propellers, 2 outboard (3 x 10 blades) driven by the main reciprocal engines, and a central prop (4 x 6 blades) powered by the steam turbine engine. How much did Kate Winslet weigh in the Titanic? In fact, after some discussions with the unions, White Star agreed to pay the surviving crew for the entire time they spent away from England. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. The ship itself would become a mass grave and time capsule lost until it was rediscovered 73 years later. How Cold Was The Water When The RMS Titanic Sank? Jan. 3, 2017. I actually had to go dig up a book to find some of the information for this. The general type of engine and boiler had remained the same in these nine years, but the increased saving had been due chiefly to increased pressures. In addition, we operate more than 100 attractions in 10 countries around the world. by hand. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. How much did tickets on the Titanic cost? This result was due partially to increased engine efficiency, and partially to increased size of ship; and thus to a relative reduction of the power necessary to drive a given amount of displacement. In today's economy, that is equivalent to a cost of $400 million. The coal in the Ripley collection was recovered in 1994, but further souvenir hunting by tourists has caused irreparable damage to the wreck of theTitanic. It was the usual rule that pay stopped when a ship sank. The massive weight of the Titanic was highly impressive for the era, but the unsinkable ship was obviously flawed. The largest of the anchors weighed 15.5 tons and on completion was drawn through the streets of Netherton on a wagon drawn by 20 shire horses. The Titanic had 5,892 tons of -From the Belfast Newsletter report on the launch of Titanic, published Thursday 01 June 1911. In the next two years the change proceeded slowly, but by 1885 the engineering mind had so largely accepted it that a very large proportion of the engines built in that year were on this principle, and at the present it may be regarded as being as fully accepted as was the compound engine ten years since. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. A single First Class berth would have cost these workers 4 to 8 . It is curious that at the reading of both the paper by Sir Frederick Bramwell, in 1872, and that of Mr. Marshall, in 1881, there should have been pretty generally expressed a feeling that something like a finality had been reached. #3. the titanic used 850 tonnes of coal each day. When all the double-enders were fully fired up and operational, they could consume approximately 850 tons of coal per day, or on average 35 tons per hour, and the Titanic had a total bunker capacity of 6,611 tons. When the Titanic was put to sea, it was the largest ship afloat, measuring 882 feet long and standing 175 feet tall. Hi again Mark, I think you'll find overloading is a very common practice in wartime as the authorities want to get the most out of any ship, be they civilian transports or warships. Cruise ship anchors are usually between 10-20 feet in length and weigh between 10 and 20 US tons. The Titanic had twenty-four double-ended boilers and five single-ended boilers. how much coal did the titanic use each daychris davis coach. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Weigh anchor. The first class tickets ranged enormously in price, from $150 (about $1700 today) for a simple berth, up to $4350 ($50,000) for one of the two Parlour suites. The Belted Cruiser Orlando, with Twin Screws. Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). The Titanic was cited to be 66,000 tons, but this is inaccurate. This is often needed when a ship stops out to sea. 1:6 the angle at which the funnels were raked back, in order to make their visual appearance even more impressive. ", Since the year 1879 the following great ships have been placed upon the Liverpool and New York lines. " How cold was the water when Titanic sank? We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. The middle 57% of Coal Miners makes between $53,905 and $133,947, with the top 86% making $294,800. The Titanic left Southampton with 5892 tons of welsh coal supplied by the Lewis Merthyr Consolidated Collieries supplemented by coal from other White Star Line ships laid up by the coal strike. When all the double-enders were fully fired up and operational, they could consume approximately 850 tons of coal per day, or on average 35 tons per hour, and the Titanic had a total bunker capacity of 6,611 tons. 25 the number of these boilers that were double-ended (6 furnaces each). 1,200 miles the typical range of the Titanics wireless equipment at night. October 2020How long did it take to build the real Titanic?The Titanic took up the building as the largest m. How much coal did the Titanic use per day in tons? How much coal did the Titanic use each day? Due to its sheer size, it needed 6,000 tons of coal daily to keep the ship moving. With this came still higher pressures, which were carried from 60 to 80 and 90 pounds. Only when the flotation devices rotted away did they sink. How much coal did the Titanic use each day. Cards are in very nice condition. Some of the coal, including this fragment, was salvaged from the wrecksite and broken up for sale. Speed was just one of the issues that caused the ship to sink. I haven't double checked these numbers, so forgive me if they are inaccurate, but there were 29 boilers, 4 of which, I believe . A team of 176 men kept the fires burning, and it is estimated that over 100 tons of ash were injected into the Atlantic each day the Titanic operated. But it worked its way into sea practice very slowly; and the multi-tubular boiler, in any of its several forms, cannot be said to have been fairly adopted in either American or British sea-going ships before the date first mentioned, though employed in the Hudson River and Long Island Sound steamers, in one of the former of which, the Thomas Powell, built in 1850, a steam pressure of 50 pounds was used. She was on her 202nd crossing and return leg of her 101st voyage when she was sunk. 6,611 tons the amount of coal stored in the ships bunkers. Both vessels are engaged in the same trade and steam at the same rate of speed, viz., 12 knots an hour. That this change will soon come is pretty sure. It appears a combination of poor engineering and navigating decisions combined with the laws of physics led to its ultimate demise. In those days, most passengers and crewmembers used the public restroom facilities, which on third-class, included automatic flushing toilets. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. We did make sure the 5 most expensive cards were included and in great condition. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". 90 kg). Titanic was equipped with 24 double-ended and 5 single-ended Scotch boilers. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons. The coal and oil plants are not desirable due to environmental impacts and .